Your research deals with the connection between political and sexual violence in the Greek Civil War. How did you choose this case?
My journey into studying the intersection of political and sexual violence in the Greek Civil War is rooted in a combination of academic influences, past research experiences, and a personal drive to confront challenging, urgent issues. My initial focus on the ways political systems manipulate and exploit vulnerable individuals began with my master’s dissertation on Pier Paolo Pasolini’s Salo, or the 120 Days of Sodom. Pasolini was deeply interested in how political elites, particularly those operating within fascist totalitarian regimes, utilise their power to control and dehumanise. The allegorical film depicts the brutal exploitation of powerless individuals by elites, both for political and sexual purposes, against the backdrop of the Italian Social Republic—a period of intense societal and political upheaval when fascism was at its height. This exploration of violence, sexuality, and political oppression resonated deeply with me, especially in relation to the fluidity and volatility of crisis periods.
My original research plan included a comparative study of the civil wars in Greece and Italy. However, upon further investigation, I chose to focus my analysis solely on the Greek case, with the objective of conducting a more comprehensive and detailed examination of the diverse forms of violence perpetrated by the opposing factions. The Greek Civil War (1946-1949) is among the most violent periods in Greece’s history, yet studies often approach its violence through political labels—treating it largely in quantitative, impersonal terms. Rarely has the focus been on violence against or by women, let alone sexual violence, or on how these acts connect to the social and political upheaval of the time.
The opportunity to further explore these themes arose through my involvement in a research project on domestic violence against women in Greece, organised by the National Centre of Social Research (EKKE). This project enabled me to gain insight into the realities of gender-based violence and fostered a keen interest in investigating how these issues manifested historically, particularly during wartime, when social and political structures are destabilised. It underscored the necessity of viewing gendered violence today as part of a longer historical continuum—an approach essential for understanding how gender and power interact during periods of extreme stress.
In my view, sensitive and challenging subjects like war and violence are deeply relevant to the global issues we face today. Around the world, we are witnessing rising threats to democratic freedoms, increased political violence, and a disturbing prevalence of sexual abuse and violence against women. The number of femicides worldwide confirms this. History is invaluable for illuminating the roots of these patterns; every conflict and instance of oppression in the past resonates with our present struggles. My research aims to explore how gendered and political violence in the Greek Civil War may reflect or foreshadow today’s global conflicts.
By studying the Greek Civil War, I hope to shed light on the ways political and sexual violence intersect and to draw parallels with the “global civil war”, conceptualised by thinkers such as Giorgio Agamben. This global crisis, exemplified by the situations in Ukraine, Palestine, and other regions, demonstrates the enduring power of forces that perpetuate division and violence. Our contemporary world bears an unsettling resemblance to the past, and by examining historical instances of gender-based and political violence, we can gain insights that may help us navigate the complex and turbulent future ahead.
In the majority of current armed conflicts at every latitude, the politicisation or weaponisation of sexual violence seems to be a horrendous constant. Do you see any common patterns? How does your research contribute to our understanding of this form of violence?
The phenomenon of sexual violence in armed conflicts, regardless of geographical location, is a recurring and devastating reality that reflects common patterns across both historical and contemporary conflicts. One pivotal pattern is the politicisation of sexual violence, whereby it is used as a deliberate instrument of control—not merely to inflict harm on individuals, but also to destabilise communities, erode resistance, and instill terror. In my research on the Greek Civil War, I examine how gender-based violence is inextricably linked with political violence and frequently employed to advance political objectives. This interplay is, I believe, crucial to understanding how sexual violence operates within conflict, where it extends beyond individual acts to become a weapon wielded for power, punishment, and domination.
The Greek Civil War serves as a case study to explore the “repertoire of violence” experienced by women from diverse political backgrounds, as well as the forms of violence they occasionally exercised. During this period, sexual violence was not only a physical assault but also a means of dehumanising opponents, destroying solidarity within communities, and weakening collective resistance. Women’s bodies became battlegrounds of political conflict, where acts of sexual violence fulfilled objectives that mirrored those of political violence itself, including coercion, punishment, blackmail, reformation, and the dismantling of solidarity.
The analysis of this period demonstrates that gender-based violence cannot be viewed in isolation from political violence. The assumption that political violence is gender-neutral often fails to recognise the ways in which women’s gender and sexuality are targeted or manipulated as pretexts for violence. During the Greek Civil War, accusations related to women’s sexuality and social roles were strategically employed, thereby blurring the lines between political and gender-based violence. These acts were not solely motivated by sexual impulses; they often stemmed from a desire to assert power and control, transforming sexual violence into one of the most potent weapons of war.
Another pattern that emerges from this analysis is the regime of impunity that accompanies such violence. In conflict zones, sexual violence often goes unpunished, allowing perpetrators to continue wielding it as a weapon with little fear of consequences. This impunity transforms violence into a system of oppression that extends far beyond the battlefield, impacting women’s lives for generations. In cases like the Greek Civil War, such acts are seen not merely as violations of individuals but as attacks on communities and ideologies.
To fully grasp the complexities of conflict, it is essential to include sexual and gender-based violence as core elements of the analytical framework. My work encourages reflection on how we perceive, define, and historicize violence. Which forms of violence are overlooked? How are these acts justified and woven into conflict narratives? By addressing these questions, I aim to develop a framework that clarifies the roles gender, sexuality, and power dynamics play in violent conflicts.
Katerina Acheimastou is a fourth-year PhD researcher in the Department of History of the European University Institute, specialising in gender history, political history, and conflict studies. The title of her PhD thesis is 'Political and Sexual Violence in the ‘State of Exception’: The Case of the Greek Civil War.'
Photo credit: "La guerre" by Henri Rousseau via Wikimedia Commons